Abstract.
This is a paper whose thematic concern is women as presidents and prime ministers. In dwelling deep into this theme, the writer will attempt to address an array of issues; these range from past women leaders, the current women leaders, hurdles they have crossed and lastly future prospects for female leadership positions. It is my intention that this paper will spark a flame of revolution as Captain Thomas Sankara rightly said ‘the revolution will not work without the emancipation of women[1]’.
This is a paper whose thematic concern is women as presidents and prime ministers. In dwelling deep into this theme, the writer will attempt to address an array of issues; these range from past women leaders, the current women leaders, hurdles they have crossed and lastly future prospects for female leadership positions. It is my intention that this paper will spark a flame of revolution as Captain Thomas Sankara rightly said ‘the revolution will not work without the emancipation of women[1]’.
Women leadership, well that’s an advancement considering
where the world is coming from, putting into consideration patriarchy. Before a
child can run, he/she must crawl, so before we advocate for women leadership
let us first know the statistics of where women have ruled; the table below
illustrates more
|
Geographical Area
|
Number
|
Countries
|
|
Europe
|
25
|
Finland
(2), France, Germany (2), Iceland (2), Ireland (2), Malta, Norway, Portugal,
Turkey, Switzerland (2), United Kingdom, Bulgaria, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania
(2), Macedonia, Moldova,
Poland,
Ukraine, Yugoslavia
|
|
Africa
|
9
|
Burundi,
Central African Republic, Guinea Bissau, Liberia,
Mozambique,
Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe (2), Senegal
|
|
Latin
America
|
9
|
Argentina
(2), Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Guyana, Nicaragua,
Panama,
Peru
|
|
Asia
|
13
|
Bangladesh
(2), Pakistan, India (2), Sri Lanka (2),Indonesia, the Philippines
(2),Mongolia, South Korea (2)
|
|
Caribbean
|
5
|
Dominica,
Haiti (3), Jamaica
|
|
Middle
East
|
2
|
Israel
|
Issues
How is it that some regions have had
many women representatives whereas some regions have had none at all?
We
can see that there have been some strides towards women representation however
there are also some regions whereby there have been no women leaders at all
case in point the United States of America[2]. Hillary Clinton was the
closest a woman ever got. Some scholars try to explain that these is because of
the military might of America and the reluctance of the elite to elect a woman
to be the most powerful person in the middle east.
What is the difference between prime
ministerial power and presidential?
For
a prime ministerial position this is a position that merges the executive and
legislature. Prime ministers share power with the cabinet and party members as
such we find that the attributes that are essential to this are negotiation,
collaboration and deliberation. Whereas
for the presidency which is independent of the legislature and required to make
quick decisions. This may explain why there are more women prime ministers than
presidents[3].
In
1900 when Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa spoke and ignited a revolution with her
Solomonic words that entailed total resistance to the colonialists, the world
did not have a slight clue that this was the beginning of a long struggle of
emancipation from underrepresentation of women in the political domain in their
respective countries. The Road to representation has been long and tough but
fruitful. The Fruits of this tree are seen in 1960 when Sirimavo Bandaranaike
became the world’s first woman prime minister in what was then Ceylon[4], then again in 1974 Isabel
Peron became the first non-acting president of Argentina[5], it bloomed further when
Benazir Bhutto became the first woman prime minister of any Muslim state[6]. A landmark some may opine.
This
raised concerns, how can a woman cope with such a demanding task? (*sexist, for narration purposes only)
31
years later, the would-be inquisitors of that question were wrong, as we presently
have about more than 15 female heads of state in power, these include but not
limited to;
1. Chancellor
Angela Merkel for Germany, elected since Nov. 22, 2005
Angela
Merkel prefers a leadership style of discussion, deliberation and consensus and
this has proven successful for her as she is democratic, prudent and modest,
such that she has been nicknamed ‘mummy’. A third of the women in Germany
consider her a role model. However all through Merkel’s career she has failed
to address the gender issue, Germany is actually one of the countries with the
biggest gender pay gaps in Europe. Failure of the government to address women
issues is centered on statistics that show 46% of women do not look up to the
government for help[7].
2. President
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf for Liberia, since Jan. 16, 2006
In
2011 president Sirleaf received a Nobel peace prize for her efforts in securing
women’s rights and peace building process in a post-civil war Liberia. The
world admires her for her political prominence. She established a special ‘rape
court’, government ministries of justice, finance and commerce are headed by
women. This looks good we might conclude. However, a flip of the coin shows
that in Liberia, 55% of women have never seen the inside of a classroom,
maternal mortality in Liberia is among the highest in the world and women’s
participation in politics is very low as there are 13.5% women in the National
Legislature[8]
3. President
Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner: Argentina, since Dec. 10, 2007
Ms
Kirchner was initially assumed to be a puppet of her former husband president,
but when she was widowed, she proved people wrong. In this age of capitalism
she did the unthinkable, she nationalized a major oil company called YPF this
discouraged foreign investors and many critics waited for a downfall but
surprisingly the economy grew[9]. The
industrial sector experienced an overall increase in production of 52 percent,
a positive sign for the administration. This increased exports and finally
unemployment levels dropped from 10.6 percent in 2005 to 7.9 percent[10]. However, even with all
these good signs Argentina remains one of the countries with the worst cases of
domestic violence, timely prosecution of rape, sexual harassment and a
persistent gender pay gap, among other iniquities[11]
4. President
Park Geunhye: South Korea, since Feb. 25, 2013
President
Park has had it rough; South Korea is a country that is ranked below Suriname
and United Arab Emirates in gender equality[12]. Park was left with an 11 centimeter wound
across her cheek after she was attacked by a man at a political rally in 2006.
Her apparently businesslike response after waking from surgery "How is
Daejeon?" referring to the party's campaign in that city, earned her the
nickname "Queen of Elections[13]." Before her, South
Korea had not had a female ruler for one thousand years! She is said to be an
intensely private woman who has never married and mostly dines alone. The
nation is her family, she likes to say[14]. Many critics pose that
she will do minimal to correct her countries gender inequalities because she is
the daughter of a former dictator that ruled the nation with an iron rod,
throughout her political career she is known for her inability to connect with
people at the grass roots because of her privileged life since birth, it is
even known that her fathers posthumous wealth is what financed her entry to
politics. She lacks a track record of practicing such positive feminine
leadership and supporting policies to promote gender equality and empower
social minorities in general[15]. Lastly, it is the
Conservative party that propelled her to power, which alike Margaret Thatcher
in Britain are totally unconcerned with issues such as gender equality.
5. President
Dilma Rousseff: Brazil, since Jan. 1, 2011
Ms.
Rousseff started her tenure with a boost of enthusiasm and confidence and even
promised gender equality with a spirit never witnessed before. This was when
she won a presidential run off, with 54% of the votes[16]. Unfortunately, Dilma’s
Presidency has done little to change the role of women in Brazilian politics. Women
representation is at 15%[17]. There is a masculine
social culture that affects people in Brazil, which discriminates against women
thus they have less access to infrastructure then there also has to be a reduction
in gender bias in the marketplace[18]
This
however inauspicious, shows a progress shift from the old ways in which
leadership was a reserve for males. And this shows. Progress towards that which
was once an illusion but now a slowly unfolding reality: Gender equality.
How exactly is it that these great
women came into power? Road to power?
According
to Researchers like Francine D’ Amico there are 3 ways in which women have
reached the apex of power, which often takes a lifetime. These are;
1. Replacements
- women who take over a family member’s position of power.
2. The
insiders - who climb to power in a political party.
3. The
outsiders - who get a position of power because of their work in voluntary
organizations, on a grassroots level or because of their profession[19].
What factors have boosted women into
power?
Education:
More than half of the women who came into power possess high level of
education, masters and higher that is, however a few others possess college
degrees whereas and a very less percentage had high school degrees[20].
These
professional fields were mainly law but followed by medicine with economics
trailing close behind.
Leadership
gaps/Political Instability: this is noteworthy especially in the case of Yaa
Asantewaa. We find that women have also risen to power when the male elders
were either afraid or incapacitated to lead or act, these leadership gaps have
been the indicators of women’s ability to lead
Familial
Ties/Political Connections: from a healthy dose of research we come to the
conclusion that at least 15 out of the Women leaders that we’ve had either had
a familial tie to a leader or a strong political connection to a strong
political family. For example Bandaranaike and Peron were the wives of leaders
who passed away in office. But this does not mean that it is only women who
benefited from male relatives in power. Indira Gandhi's son Rajiv Gandhi rose
to be the Prime minister after his mother’s demise.
What needs to be done for more women
representation?
2/3
Gender Rule
The struggle for gender equality has been there since time
immemorial and before we misguidedly embark in aligning our thoughts to the
views expressed by selfish patriarchal writers in the daily newspapers over how
the 2/3 gender rule is untenable (names withheld) let us take note that Rwanda
and Uganda are states that surpassed the 2/3 gender rule a long time ago.
When the Constitution was promulgated it enshrined this
rule in Article 81(b), right before the last elections, the Attorney General
moved to the Supreme Court seeking an advisory opinion on just how the rule
should be applied lest there be a
Constitutional crisis.
The Supreme Court in a Solomonic ruling held that this
should be applied progressively and that it should be in place right latest 27 August
2015. A high court judge Odunga was quick to condemn rulings that are good for
academic papers but not realistically possible. The deadline for implementation
is barely a few from now and the rule is yet to see fruition. The legislators
have been struggling to find a way to apply the rule without raising the wage
bill too high. Many were against this as it would be used as a pretext to deny
women the rule application. One prominent leader, Martha Karua opposed this
saying the Constitution implementation is not and cannot be cheap, progress
must be irrigated with blood and sweat , thus this argument of ‘untenability’
should not be raised, especially when it comes to the 2/3 gender rule.
According to the Political Parties Act the only way to
implement this rule is for women to come out in the numbers to participate in
elective process this would thus increase their chances for nomination, this is
so slow and unrealistically unsound that the writer regards it as hogwash in
the 21 century where directives such as affirmative action exist.
There are 349 seats in parliament in order for this to be
achieved we need 117 women to be in parliament currently this is not even
close.
With backing of the Constitution under Article 81(b) which
enshrines the 2/3 gender rule, Article 100(a) which supports the promotion of
marginalized groups women being amongst them, and Article 27(3) which prohibits
discrimination and supports equality amongst the sexes in particular, we should
push for reforms for the amendment of the Political Parties Act so as to make
consonant with the Constitution.
This can be done by lifting Article 177 that ensures a
constituency is represented by one member this can be done by making two
members represent a constituency a man and a woman.
We can also do this by the rotational of constituency
representatives on a gender basis.
What do we have to learn from women
leadership?
Is it that they exercise power differently than men? Do they pass minority friendly legislation? Studies in this area are highly varied which means that more research should be done.
Is it that they exercise power differently than men? Do they pass minority friendly legislation? Studies in this area are highly varied which means that more research should be done.
Taking
examples there has not been a revolutionary woman leader, Breakthroughs have
largely been associated with Ellen Sirleaf Johnstone whereas as for Indira
Gandhi and Margaret Thatcher they either ignored the plight of women or were
ignorantly unaware, they aligned with the status quo, making Indira Gandhi to
become referred to as the ‘only man in a cabinet full of women’
A different
perspective is evidence by Michelle Bachelet of Chile, she is committed to
gender parity and even appointed an equal number of members to her cabinet, she
legalized divorce, the morning after pill, built shelters for victims of
domestic abuse, strengthened laws against fathers who do not support their
children, enforced legislation on sexual harassment, and expanded protections
for breast-feeding mothers[21]. She is the perfect
example of a feminist president. However contextual backgrounds limit her for
example she leads a multi coalition which forces her to lead carefully.
Women
should be given a chance to lead, as men
have led since time immemorial it is now turn to see new leadership skills that
can be discovered, we are all well to familiar with male leadership styles. Improving
the status of women generally improves family-level outcomes, adds G.D.P to the
economy, increases the overall quantity of economic output (e.g. food), and
contributes meaningfully to the country’s security.
The
challenge is to the women of today to strive and lead tomorrow.
Bibliography
1.
F.
Jalalzai, A Woman in Charge of the
Country? Women Prime Ministers and Presidents A (Not Quite) Global Phenomenon.
2.
Gender
Inequality, Human Rights, and Poverty in Liberia, (2013), Harvard Kennedy
3.
Petras
, James and H. Veltmeyer, What’s Left in Latin America (Surrey: Ashgate
Publishing Limited, 2009),
4.
P.
Agénor & O. Canuto ,Gender Equality and Economic Growth in Brazil,
(P.R.E.M) 2013.,No 13.
5.
F.
Jalalzai, Women Political Leaders: Past and Present, Allegheny College.
6.
United
Nations, 2010 World Statistics Pocketbook Country Profile
Internet Sources
12.
http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm#wrapper http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/article/1108644/can-south-koreas-first-woman-president-park-geun-hye-deliver-gender
http://www.nordiclabourjournal.org/i-fokus/in-focus-2013/equality-reaching-critical-mass/article.2013-03-05.7369082730
[2] .Jalalzai,
A Woman in Charge of the Country? Women
Prime Ministers and Presidents A (Not Quite) Global Phenomenon, pg 191
[3] F.Jalalzai,
A Woman in Charge of the Country ? Women
Prime Ministers and Presidents A (Not Quite) Global Phenomenon, pg 199
[5] http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/29/newsid_2857000/2857121.stm
(Accessed on 7/22/2015)
[8]
L.Harrison, Gender Inequality, Human Rights, and Poverty in Liberia, (2013),
Harvard Kennedy School, pg 2
[9] Petras
, James and H. Veltmeyer, What’s Left in Latin America (Surrey: Ashgate
Publishing Limited, 2009), pg 60.
[10] United
Nations, 2010 World Statistics Pocketbook Country Profile, http://unstats.un.org/unsd/pocketbook/PDF/Argentina.pdf
(Accessed on (7/22/2015)
[11] http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm#wrapper
Accessed on (7/22/2015)
[13] http://edition.cnn.com/2014/03/04/world/asia/south-koreas-first-female-president/
(Accessed on 7/22/2015)
[15] http://edition.cnn.com/2012/12/21/opinion/female-president-korea-gender/
(Accessed on 7/22/2015)
[17] http://scroll.in/article/715448/why-has-brazil-president-dilma-rousseff-promoted-so-few-women
(Accessed on 7/22/2015)
[18] P.
Agénor & O. Canuto ,Gender Equality and Economic Growth in Brazil,
(P.R.E.M) 2013.,No 13, pg 4
[20] F.
Jalalzai, Women Political Leaders: Past and Present, Allegheny College, pg 9
[21]
Daniela Estrada, "Chile, Progress
for Women, but Still a Yawning Gap."Interpress Service, March 6. 2009.
ipsnews.netlnews.asp?idncws=46007 . (Accessed 5/13/2015)
